Health & Fitness

Hint: one of them doesn’t have to be a qualified ‘surgeon’ at all.

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Swallowing is a complex biological action that comprises more than 31 muscles and five cranial nerves¹ all working together to facilitate nutrition. Its two main goals are to push food from the mouth into the stomach and to protect airways from foreign objects.²

The Process Model of Feeding was created to help people understand how swallowing works whenever solid foods and liquids are consumed:³

1. Stage 1 (Transport) — Once food enters the mouth, the tongue carries it to the post-canine region to the back of the mouth to begin chewing.
2. Food processing — In this stage, the food is softened by saliva for chewing until it reaches an optimal state for swallowing. When drinking liquids, the posterior oral cavity is sealed by the tongue-palate contact to prevent leaking.
3. Stage 2 (Transport) — Once food is ready to be swallowed, it is placed in the back of the tongue to be propelled into the esophagus.
4. Pharyngeal stage — This process occurs within a second upon swallowing. The soft palate elevates and contacts the lateral and posterior walls of the pharynx to help prevent food from going into the respiratory pathways.
5. Esophageal stage — Once past the throat, the chewed food (bolus) travels down into the esophagus and into the stomach for digestion.

When Your Swallowing Muscles Experience Problems, Dysphagia Occurs

Your throat and esophagus are prone to many diseases and when either of them is affected, you may experience dysphagia, a condition marked by difficulty swallowing.⁴ It can be caused by a multitude of factors and disorders, and may lead to complications such as dehydration, malnutrition, pneumonia or an airway obstruction.⁵ Aside being unable to swallow, other prominent symptoms of dysphagia include:^6,7

Risk Factors Associated With Dysphagia

Aging is the one of the top risk factors connected to dysphagia.⁸ As people grow older, their ability to swallow becomes harder due to wear and tear on the throat and esophageal muscles. Elderly citizens also have a higher risk of developing diseases that can cause dysphagia, such as esophageal cancer, stroke, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease.^9,10

The onset of neurodegenerative diseases may also increase your risk of dysphagia.¹¹ Stroke, for example, can cause paralysis that can affect any part of your body, including your throat, although it becomes minimal as time passes.¹² In addition, those who suffer from cervical spinal cord injury¹³ and Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD),¹⁴ a genetic disorder, may experience dysphagia as a side effect.¹⁵

Learn How to Manage and Avoid Dysphagia in This Guide

While the complications of dysphagia are very alarming, the disease is fortunately treatable via a variety of approaches. Consuming a healthy diet, getting regular exercise and avoiding unhealthy vices can all help mitigate the risk factors associated with the underlying causes of dysphagia. In the following pages, discover which methods work best and the best practices you can implement to safeguard your health.

MORE ABOUT DYSPHAGIA

Dysphagia: Introduction	What Is Dysphagia?	Dysphagia Symptoms
Dysphagia Causes	Dysphagia Treatment	Dysphagia Prevention
Dysphagia Diet	Dysphagia FAQ

Next >

What Is Dysphagia?

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More than 66 percent of the U.S. population drinks water with added fluoride,¹ despite the fact that studies continue to question its safety and usefulness for its stated purpose: preventing cavities. A number of countries — including Germany, Sweden, Japan, the Netherlands, Finland and Israel — have already stopped this hazardous practice, but many Americans are still at risk.

In Canada, nearly 39 percent of the population also receives fluoridated drinking water (compared with only about 3 percent of Europeans).² It's been known for years that fluoridated water consumption is linked to thyroid dysfunction and behavioral problems like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and two new studies have added to the already apparent associations.

Exposure to Fluoridated Water May Disrupt Thyroid Functioning

Your thyroid gland, located in the front of your neck, influences almost every cell in your body. Thyroid hormones regulate your metabolism and are required for growth and development in children and nearly every physiological process in your body.

When your thyroid levels are unbalanced, it can lead to a cascade of problems throughout your body. In hypothyroidism, the most common thyroid disorder, your thyroid gland activity is suppressed.

Also known as underactive thyroid, many with this condition are unaware they have it, and another 4 to 10 percent of the U.S. population may suffer from subclinical hypothyroidism that is missed by testing yet associated with miscarriage, preterm birth and altered growth and neurodevelopment in babies.

Even moderately imbalanced thyroid levels may be associated with increased risk of metabolic syndrome, researchers noted in the journal Environment International, which is why "studying factors that contribute to low thyroid function, even at the subclinical level, is of high public health importance."³

Notably, subclinical hypothyroidism is diagnosed by high serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations, and "fluoride in drinking water, even at levels as low as 0.3–0.5 mg/L, have predicted elevated TSH concentrations," the researchers added. "Higher water fluoride concentrations have also predicted an increased likelihood of a hypothyroidism diagnosis among adults."⁴

The latest study, which involved data from nearly 7 million Canadian adults not taking any thyroid-related medication, found that higher fluoride levels were not associated with higher TSH levels in the general population; however, when iodine status was accounted for, the results shifted.

Iodine Deficiency May Heighten the Risks of Fluoridated Water

Your body uses iodine across several organ systems, but it is most commonly known to synthesize thyroid hormones. Clinically low levels of iodine are associated with visible symptoms, such as a goiter (swelling of the thyroid gland), hypothyroidism or pregnancy-related problems. However, subclinical iodine deficiency can also interfere with your thyroid function.

Meanwhile, the Canadian study revealed that adults in Canada who have moderate-to-severe iodine deficiencies and higher fluoride levels tend to have higher TSH levels, which indicates they may be at an increased risk for underactive thyroid gland activity.⁵

It's a startling finding, considering nearly 2 billion people worldwide don't get enough iodine in their diet.⁶ As the researchers of the featured study noted, this means that those with iodine deficiency may be at an even greater increased risk from drinking fluoridated water:⁷

"Iodine deficiency can contribute to decreased thyroid hormone production and exacerbate the thyroid-disrupting effects of certain chemicals, as well as fluoride …

Fluoride exposures of 0.05 to 0.13 mg/kg/day have been associated with adverse thyroid effects among iodine sufficient people, while lower fluoride exposures of 0.01 to 0.03 mg/kg/day have been associated with these effects among iodine deficient people."

The effects were so worrying that lead study author Ashley Malin, a researcher at the department of environmental medicine and public health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, told Environmental Health News:⁸

"I have grave concerns about the health effects of fluoride exposure … And not just from my study but the other studies that have come out in recent years … We're talking about potentially [more than] a million people at risk of an underactive thyroid due to fluoride exposure."

In 2015, for instance, British researchers warned that 15,000 people may be afflicted with hypothyroidism in the U.K. as a result of drinking fluoridated water.⁹ In areas where fluoride levels in the water registered above 0.3 mg/l, the risk of having a high rate of hypothyroidism was 37 percent greater compared to areas that do not fluoridate.

Pregnant Women Drinking Fluoridated Water Have Higher Fluoride Levels

Fluoride exposure can occur from multiple sources, ranging from tea and processed foods to dental products, pharmaceuticals and fluoride-containing pesticides. However, research continues to show that drinking water remains a primary route of exposure, including in pregnant women.

In a study of more than 1,500 pregnant women living in Canada, those living in communities with fluoridated drinking water have two times the amount of fluoride in their urine as women living in nonfluoridated communities.¹⁰

"Research is urgently needed to determine whether prenatal exposure to fluoride contributes to neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring of these women," researchers explained.¹¹ In fact, research has previously revealed that women with higher levels of fluoride in their urine during pregnancy were more likely to have children with lower intelligence.

Specifically, each 0.5 milligram per liter increase in pregnant women's fluoride levels was associated with a reduction of 3.15 and 2.5 points on the children's General Cognitive Index (GCI) of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities and Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) scores, respectively.

Lead researcher Dr. Howard Hu, of the Dalla Lana School of Public Health at the University of Toronto in Canada, said in a news release:¹²

"Our study shows that the growing fetal nervous system may be adversely affected by higher levels of fluoride exposure. It also suggests that the prenatal nervous system may be more sensitive to fluoride compared to that of school-aged children."

The findings were groundbreaking, as the study, which spanned 12 years and received funding from the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), was one of the first and largest studies looking into this topic.

Prenatal Fluoride Exposure Is Linked to ADHD

The Canadian study on pregnant women living in fluoridated communities revealed levels of fluoride similar to those found in a study of pregnant women living in Mexico City, where the chemical is added to table salt. The same Mexican sample population has now been featured in another study, linking fluoride exposure to ADHD.¹³

The study, which involved more than 200 mother-children pairs, found that higher levels of fluoride exposure during pregnancy were associated with higher measures of ADHD, including more symptoms of inattention, in the children at ages 6 to 12 years. "[The f]indings are consistent with the growing body of evidence suggesting neurotoxicity of early-life exposure to fluoride," researchers explained.¹⁴

It's also possible that fluoride may contribute to or exacerbate behavioral problems such as ADHD by way of pineal gland calcification. Despite its diminutive size, your pineal gland tends to accumulate significant amounts of fluoride, which eventually causes it to calcify.

Besides ADHD-like symptoms, pineal calcification may also play a role in Alzheimer's and bipolar disease. According to Frank Granett, director of clinical pharmacy operations at Behavioral Center of Michigan Psychiatric Hospital:¹⁵

"Located deep within the brain below the corpus callosum, which is the circuit connector for the right and left brain hemispheres, the pineal gland is responsible for the secretion of melatonin, the human body's biological time-clock hormone regulating normal sleep patterns.

More importantly, the pineal gland plays a critical role in the enzyme pathway for the production of brain neurotransmitters including serotonin and norepinephrine. Additionally, the body's antioxidant defense system is optimized by healthy pineal tissue, which helps eliminate free-radical toxin accumulation in the body."

A review in Lancet Neurology also classified fluoride as one of only 11 chemicals "known to cause developmental neurotoxicity in human beings,"¹⁶ alongside other known neurotoxins such as lead, methylmercury, arsenic and toluene. Among the proposed mechanisms of harm, studies have shown fluoride can:¹⁷

Interfere with basic functions of nerve cells in the brain	Reduce nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Reduce lipid content in the brain	Damage the pineal gland through fluoride accumulation
Impair antioxidant defense systems	Damage the hippocampus
Damage Purkinje cells	Increase uptake of aluminum, which has neurotoxic effects
Encourage formation of beta-amyloid plaques (the classic brain abnormality in Alzheimer's disease)	Exacerbate lesions induced by iodine deficiency
Increase manganese absorption, which has also been linked lower IQ in children	Impair thyroid function, which can also affect brain development

Can Fluoride Be Removed From Drinking Water?

Effective 2015, the level of fluoride in U.S. drinking water was reduced to 0.7 mg/L from a previously recommended range of between 0.7 and 1.2 mg/L. If you live in the U.S. and want to know fluoride levels in your water, the Environmental Working Group's (EWG) Tap Water Database can help.¹⁸ This is important for everyone, but pregnant women and households mixing formula for babies should take extra care to consume fluoride-free water. EWG notes:

"Even fluoride levels of 0.7 ppm, the amount of fluoride in drinking water recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service, can result in too much fluoride for bottle-fed babies.

EWG recommends that caregivers mix baby formula with fluoride-free water. The National Toxicology Program is investigating the potential for low doses of fluoride to alter thyroid function and childhood brain development."¹⁹

Unfortunately, fluoride is a very small molecule, making it tremendously difficult to filter out once added to your water supply. Any simple countertop carbon filter, like Brita, will not remove it.

If you have a house water carbon filtration system that has a large volume of carbon, then it may reduce the fluoride as fluoride removal is in direct proportion to the amount of fluoride and the time it's in contact with the media. It's just not going to get it all. Among the more effective filtering systems for fluoride removal are:

• Reverse osmosis (RO). The drawback is that it will remove many valuable minerals and trace elements as well. RO systems also need frequent cleaning to avoid bacterial growth. So, use a tankless RO system with a compressor
• Water distillation, which, like RO, gets everything out, including beneficial minerals. You then need to restructure the water
• Bone char filters and biochar with activated charcoal

The simplest, most effective, most cost-effective strategy is to not put fluoride in the water to begin with.

Help End the Practice of Fluoridation

There's no doubt about it: Fluoride should not be ingested. Even scientists from the EPA's National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory have classified fluoride as a "chemical having substantial evidence of developmental neurotoxicity."

Furthermore, according to the CDC, 41 percent of American adolescents now have dental fluorosis — unattractive discoloration and mottling of the teeth that indicate overexposure to fluoride. Clearly, children are being overexposed, and their health and development put in jeopardy. Why? The only real solution is to stop the archaic practice of water fluoridation in the first place.

Fortunately, the Fluoride Action Network has a game plan to END water fluoridation worldwide. Clean pure water is a prerequisite to optimal health. Industrial chemicals, drugs, and other toxic additives really have no place in our water supplies. So, please, protect your drinking water and support the fluoride-free movement by making a tax-deductible donation to the Fluoride Action Network today.

Internet Resources Where You Can Learn More

I encourage you to visit the website of the Fluoride Action Network (FAN) and visit the links below:

• Like FAN on Facebook, follow on Twitter and sign up for campaign alerts.
• 10 Facts About Fluoride: Attorney Michael Connett summarizes 10 basic facts about fluoride that should be considered in any discussion about whether to fluoridate water. Also see 10 Facts Handout (PDF).
• 50 Reasons to Oppose Fluoridation: Learn why fluoridation is a bad medical practice that is unnecessary and ineffective. Download PDF.
• Health Effects Database: FAN's database sets forth the scientific basis for concerns regarding the safety and effectiveness of ingesting fluorides. They also have a Study Tracker with the most up-to-date and comprehensive source for studies on fluoride's effects on human health.

Together, Let's Help FAN Get the Funding They Deserve

In my opinion, there are very few NGOs that are as effective and efficient as FAN. Its small team has led the charge to end fluoridation and will continue to do so with our help! Please make a donation today to help FAN end the absurdity of fluoridation.

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By Dr. Mercola

Iodine deficiency and the thyroid conditions related to it are a serious public health concern. Several studies published earlier this year suggest iodine deficiency is re-emerging. While about 40 percent of the world's population is thought to be at risk of iodine deficiency,¹ residents of developed countries are increasingly found to be lacking this essential nutrient.

Your body cannot produce iodine so you must get if from your diet. Iodine is necessary to make thyroid hormones, which control your metabolism and other vital functions. Because your thyroid hormones also support proper bone and brain development in utero and during infancy, the proper intake of iodine is critically important for pregnant women, nursing mothers and their babies.

What Is Iodine and Why Is It Important?

As mentioned, iodine is an essential element needed for the production of thyroid hormone. Because your body does not make iodine, you need to be intentional to ensure you obtain sufficient amounts of this nutrient on a daily basis. Although iodine can be sourced from the foods you eat or through a supplement, many people eating a standard American diet generally get enough iodine simply by using table salt. I'll say more about salt later in the article.

When your body lacks sufficient iodine, it cannot make enough thyroid hormone. If your deficiency is severe, your thyroid may become enlarged, a condition also known as a goiter. Iodine deficiency can also cause hypothyroidism (low thyroid function). In some cases, lack of sufficient iodine can trigger intellectual disabilities and developmental problems in infants and children whose mothers were iodine deficient during pregnancy.²

According to the American Thyroid Association, iodine deficiency has also been linked to "increased difficulty with information processing, diminished fine motor skills, extreme fatigue, depression, weight gain and low basal body temperatures, among other things."³

Studies Highlight Iodine Deficiency as an Emerging Problem in Developed Nations

A 2018 study published in the journal Nutrients⁴ involving 1,007 mothers who gave birth to 1,017 children (including 10 twin pairs; multiple births other than twins were excluded), suggests iodine deficiency is a significant public health issue in Norway. After collecting data multiple times during pregnancy, at birth and during four follow-up points until the babies reached age 18 months, the researchers concluded:

"[T]his study adds to the increasing evidence that pregnant women in Norway are iodine deficient and that the diet of pregnant women does not secure a sufficient iodine intake. There is an urgent need for public health strategies to secure adequate iodine nutrition among pregnant women in Norway."

Another body of 2018 research, published in JAMA,⁵ implicated iodine deficiency as a factor associated with impaired fertility. The study included 467 American women who were trying to become pregnant during a four-year span. The researchers, who were associated with the National Institutes of Health, found:⁶

• Slightly more than 44 percent of the women had urinary iodine to creatinine ratios (UI/Cr) of less than 50 micrograms (mcg)/gram (g)
• Women with UI/Cr ratios lower than 50 mcg/g had a 46 percent lower chance of becoming pregnant in any menstrual cycle compared to women with normal iodine levels or those suffering from a mild deficiency
• Those experiencing milder iodine deficiencies — between 50 and 99 mcg/g — also took longer to conceive than women with healthy iodine levels, although the difference wasn't statistically significant

An earlier study published in 2013⁷ found children of women with a UI/Cr ratio of less than 150 mcg/g during pregnancy were more likely to have lower scores on verbal IQ, reading accuracy and reading comprehension at age 8.

Iodine Is an Essential Nutrient During the First 1,000 Days of Life

In a March 2018 study published in Nutrients,⁸ researchers from the U.K.'s University of Surrey and Spain's Hospital Riotinto observed the effects of a mother's iodine deficiency related to various stages of child development — during pregnancy, breastfeeding and the first two years of life. About the outcomes, Health.News noted:⁹

"[The researchers] observed iodine deficiency could lead to cognitive consequences such as impaired speech development, learning and reading skills. The negative cognitive outcomes caused by iodine deficiency also led to an increase in behavioral disorders. This was associated with abnormal serum thyroid concentrations during the early stages of pregnancy."

"Iodine is most critical in the early stages of development, as the fetal brain is extremely dependent on iodine supply and it cannot be replaced by any other nutrient," suggests study coauthor Dr. Ines Velasco from the pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology unit of Hospital Riotinto. "[A]n adequate iodine intake in pregnancy is needed to achieve optimal fetal neurodevelopment."

Iodine Deficiency: Its History and Causes

You may associate iodine with salt. There's a long-standing connection between the two mainly because beginning in the U.S. in 1924, iodine (in the form of potassium iodide) was added to table salt to address the skyrocketing rates of deficiency.¹⁰ Many residents of the Appalachian, Great Lakes and Pacific Northwest regions were plagued by goiters.

Due to the lack of iodine in the soil and the alarming rates of thyroid dysfunction found in local populations, these areas became referred to as the "goiter belt." At the time, the addition of iodine to table salt, which was an idea borrowed from the Swiss who were adding it for the same reasons, had a noticeably positive effect, reducing the prevalence of deficiency.¹¹

Now, decades later, iodine deficiency is once again showing itself to be a problem. About the issue, Dr. Jacob Teitelbaum, author and nationally recognized expert on chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, pain and sleep, asserts:¹²

"In the last 30 years, the intake of iodine in America has dropped by around 50 percent. Iodine's main role is to help manufacture thyroid hormones. That's why a subclinical iodine deficiency — enough to prevent a goiter, but not enough for optimal health — can cause hypothyroidism, an under-recognized condition that is epidemic in America."

Chemicals in Your Environment Can Block Iodine Absorption

While women have a greater incidence of iodine deficiency related to their hormone production, the bodies of both men and women are subject to the poor absorption of iodine and suboptimal use due to environmental contamination. Common contaminants that compete with iodine include:

• Bromide: Bromides are known endocrine disruptors found in baked goods, pesticides and plastics, among other sources. Because bromide is a halide, it competes for the same receptors used in your thyroid gland and other body areas to capture iodine, thereby inhibiting thyroid hormone production and resulting in a deficiency.
• Fluoride: Fluoride has long been known to displace iodine and studies involving both animals and humans have proven such. As cited by the Fluoride Action Network, Chinese researchers "have repeatedly found that an iodine deficiency coupled with fluoride exposure produces a significantly more damaging effect on neurological development than iodine deficiency alone."¹³
• Mercury: Iodine may help detoxify your body of mercury, which is found in dental amalgam fillings and fish like tuna, as well as in consumer products such as antiques, batteries, electronics, light bulbs and pharmaceutical products.
• Nitrates: While there are healthy nitrates, such as from vegetables, including beets, the nitrites found in processed meats such as bacon, hot dogs, lunch meat and sausage may interfere with your uptake of iodine, so be sure to avoid them. Nitrates from agricultural fertilizer, present in contaminated drinking water, have also been implicated as a potential cause of thyroid cancer.¹⁴
• Perchlorate: A contaminant found in groundwater across the U.S. and in measurable amounts in milk, fruit and vegetables. In high doses, perchlorate may inhibit the function of your thyroid gland. Even in low doses, it inhibits the uptake of iodine by your thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.^15,16

How Much Iodine Do You Need and How Can You Get It?

According to the National Institutes of Health, the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for iodine is:¹⁷

Age	RDA for Iodine
Birth to 6 months	110 mcg
7 to 12 months	130 mcg
1 to 8 years	90 mcg
9 to 13 years	120 mcg
14 years and older	150 mcg
Pregnant women	220 mcg
Breastfeeding women	290 mcg

I always recommend you get as many nutrients as possible from the food you eat and your intake of iodine is no exception. Always choose fresh, organic fruits and vegetables and raw, organic, grass fed dairy. Below are some of the foods known to be rich in iodine:^18,19

Cheese If you are able to tolerate dairy, you'll be pleased to know raw, organic, grass fed cheese is high in iodine. For example, a 1-ounce serving of raw cheddar cheese contains about 10 to 15 mcg.

Cranberries and cranberry juice Although about 4 ounces of cranberries contain 400 mcg of iodine, as with any fruit, I suggest you consume fresh, organic cranberries or cranberry juice in moderation due to their fructose content. To avoid added sugar, you may want to make your own cranberry juice or buy a brand containing 100 percent juice and no added sugar. (Avoid cranberries if you have urinary tract stones or take a blood-thinning medication like warfarin.)

Eggs One large organic, pastured egg contains about 24 mcg of iodine.

Lima beans and navy beans One cup of cooked lima beans contains about 16 mcg of iodine; one-half cup serving of navy beans contains 32 mcg. While beans are also a great source of fiber, be advised they contain health-damaging lectins. To reduce the lectin content, always soak beans overnight and change the soaking water a few times. Using a pressure cooker can help reduce lectins. Eat beans only occasionally.

Potatoes A medium-sized baked potato contains about 60 mcg of iodine, making potatoes one of the richest sources of iodine among vegetables. Because potatoes are heavily sprayed with pesticides, be sure to purchase organic potatoes. Due to their high starch content, I recommend you eat potatoes in moderation.

Sea vegetables Sea vegetables such as arame, dulse, hiziki, kelp, kombu and wakame are excellent sources of iodine. Kelp, which boasts 2,000 mcg per a 1-tablespoon serving, is the best source of iodine on the planet. At the low end of this group, wakame contains about 80 mcg per tablespoon, a level that outpaces many other sources of iodine. You can read more about the restorative benefits of kelp in my previous article, "Kelp or Kale: Is Seaweed a Superfood?"

Strawberries One cup of strawberries contains about 13 mcg of iodine. As with cranberries, be mindful that strawberries contain fructose. Because strawberries are sprayed with pesticides, always buy organic.

Yogurt As a superb source of natural probiotics, a 1-cup serving of yogurt provides approximately 90 mcg of iodine. Choose yogurt made from raw, organic, grass fed milk and keep in mind that store bought varieties typically contain added sugar, artificial colors and flavors and other unhealthy ingredients. For the best yogurt, you may want to make your own. Check out my recipe "How to Make Fresh Homemade Yogurt."

Health Effects Associated With Iodine Deficiency

Even though the inclusion of iodine in table salt was an effective strategy used to increase iodine levels for decades, it is no longer having effects for a growing portion of the U.S. population. The main reason is that table salt has endured a major loss of popularity and many are choosing to forego this once ubiquitous staple, particularly in developed countries in which other salts have increased in popularity.

In recent years, unprocessed salts, such as sea salt and mineral salts like Himalayan pink salt, which is a personal favorite, have become more popular. While mineral salts are wonderful sources of trace minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and vanadium, they may leave you short on iodine since it is not added.

In years past, iodine was also added to flour, but has since been replaced with bromide and chlorine, which only exacerbates the problem. As noted by Teitelbaum, chlorine further depletes your body of iodine.²⁰ The most common symptoms/outcomes of iodine deficiency include:²¹

• Cancer: Your iodine intake is directly tied to your breast health because this mineral provides a host of antioxidant benefits. Iodine deficiencies are linked to both breast cancer and thyroid cancer. The good news is iodine is involved in apoptosis — programmed cell death that is necessary for the development of new cells and the elimination of diseased cells.
• Fatigue and weakness: Because iodine is important for your body's energy production, a lack of it can cause you to feel fatigued and sleepy. Its absence may also cause you to feel cranky and moody.
• Goiter: Simply stated, a goiter is abnormal swelling of your thyroid gland due to insufficient iodine. Not only will a goiter cause a noticeable protrusion at the base of your neck, but more serious types may result in a cough and may even make it difficult for you to breathe and swallow.
• Infertility: Given its importance for regulating your thyroid function and hormones, iodine also plays a role in infertility.
• Other concerns: Because iodine is crucial for proper thyroid function, a lack of it can trigger hypothyroidism. An underactive thyroid gland can cause constipation, dry skin, fatigue, hair loss and unexpected weight gain, among other symptoms.

Given the increasing rates of thyroid deficiencies worldwide, especially in developed countries, you'd be wise to ensure you are getting sufficient daily amounts of iodine. While I do not recommend table salt because it has been stripped of many of its nutrients, there are plenty of healthy sources for iodine. If for any reason you are not able to consume any of those foods, talk to your doctor about taking a high-quality iodine supplement.

This vital mineral is much too important to ignore. If you have any symptoms of iodine deficiency, you can take one or both of the following actions to determine your iodine status:

• As explained in the video above, conduct a simple skin test at home using an orange-colored iodine tincture
• Ask your health practitioner to check your iodine level using an iodine-loading test or through bloodwork

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By Dr. Mercola

Your thyroid gland, located in the front of your neck, influences almost every cell in your body. Thyroid hormones regulate your metabolism, and are required for growth and development in children and nearly every physiological process in your body.

When your thyroid levels are unbalanced, it can spell trouble for your overall health and wellness. Evidence suggests nearly 60 percent of people with suboptimal thyroid function are unaware of their condition.¹ While prevalent, it is often easily treatable and may reverse symptoms of other health conditions.

Poor thyroid function is linked to health conditions such as fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, eczema, gum disease and autoimmune disorders. Symptoms of low function and the health conditions affected by low levels are varied, as the hormone is used throughout your body.

Women are five to eight times more likely than men to have low thyroid function and 1 in 8 women will develop a thyroid disorder in her lifetime.² Understanding the basics of how your thyroid functions and what may cause a dysfunction is important to your overall health.

Thyroid Function

Your thyroid gland is shaped like a butterfly on your neck just under your voice box and secretes four hormones: T1, T2, T3 and T4. The number indicates the number of molecules of iodide attached to the hormone. These hormones interact with other hormones, such as insulin, cortisol and sex hormones.

Your hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) that triggers the pituitary gland to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) that then causes your thyroid to release T4. Almost 90 percent of your thyroid hormone is released in an inactive form of T4. Your liver then converts T4 to T3 with the help of an enzyme. T2 is currently the least understood form of thyroid hormone and is the subject of a number of ongoing studies.

When everything is working properly, your body makes enough T4 that is converted to T3 to control the metabolism of every cell in your body. T3 is critical in the communication of messages to your DNA to increase your metabolism by burning fat. In this way, it helps keep you lean. Nutritional imbalances, toxic exposures, allergens, infections and stress can disrupt this hormonal balance, leading to a series of health complications including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer.

Thyroid Cancer Acts Differently Than Other Cancers

You may have been swayed by advertisements from an industry-funded foundation³ to be screened for thyroid cancer, but the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has added this screening process to their "don't-do-it category" in recommendations published in the Journal of the American Medical Association.⁴

The task force believes the consequences of thyroid cancer screening far outweigh the benefits. Although most cancer screenings help detect early disease and increase the potential for successful treatment, in this case early screening may actually backfire.

In many cases thyroid cancer screening will yield a false positive result, finding cancers that would never grow into life-threatening tumors.⁵ However, once discovered, most physicians feel obligated to recommend treatment, which often includes removal of the thyroid gland, and which may have significant side effects.

Surgeons may accidently sever nerves that control speech and swallowing, or remove the parathyroid gland that regulates calcium levels in your body. In an accompanying editorial, Dr. H. Gilbert Welch, of Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, discussed problems with overdiagnosis of thyroid cancer.

Data from the SEER program demonstrated the incidence of thyroid cancer had remained relatively stable until 1990, after which it tripled.⁶ However, more interesting is that despite this rapid increase, mortality from thyroid cancer has remained stable, an indication cancers are identified and treated that don't require treatment. Welch said:⁷

"Patients with newly diagnosed thyroid cancer typically have been treated aggressively. As of 2013 in the United States, over 80 percent underwent total thyroidectomy and subsequently required lifelong thyroid replacement therapy."

Do You Have Underactive Thyroid Function?

In this informative video, Dr. Jonathan Wright discusses the measurement of thyroid function and how it should be compared against symptoms you may be experiencing. This was demonstrated in a recent European study in which researchers compared results of treatment against lab testing and symptoms.⁸

The authors were interested in the clinical effectiveness of treatment with the drug levothyroxine (Synthroid) after patients were diagnosed with low thyroid function. The number of people diagnosed in the U.S. has risen to the point levothyroxine is the most prescribed medication, outdistancing statins in 2015.⁹

A study from Johns Hopkins found nearly 15 percent of all older Americans were taking levothyroxine.¹⁰ However, as popular as this medication appears to be, the European study found the drug had no significant effect on older Europeans with mild symptoms of hypothyroidism.¹¹ Physicians often order a TSH test as part of a routine panel of blood tests, prescribing drugs when the numbers are slightly elevated, although the patient may not complain of significant symptoms.

The study participants had higher than normal TSH level at least twice and had complaints of being tired. The researchers assessed cognitive speed, hand strength, weight and blood pressure prior to splitting the group, giving half levothyroxine and half a placebo. After one year of intervention, the researchers found TSH levels returned to normal in the group taking the drugs, but the participants' complaints did not improve over the year in either group.

Flame-Retardant Chemicals Affect Thyroid Function

The researchers attributed the changes in TSH levels to age in the population studied, as the average participant was 74 years. However, other research has demonstrated environmental toxins may be responsible for a change in your thyroid function, and even for an increasing number of papillary thyroid cancer.¹²

Lead researcher Dr. Julie Ann Sosa, professor of surgery and medicine at Duke University School of Medicine, said, "Recent studies suggest that environmental factors may, in part, be responsible for this increase." The research focused on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a class of flame-retardant chemicals.

Previous animal studies had demonstrated a link between PBDEs and thyroid function, so Sosa and her colleagues collected dust samples from the homes of 140 participants already diagnosed with papillary thyroid cancer who had lived in their home an average of 10 years.

The researchers used blood samples to assess exposure to PBDEs and found those living in homes with high levels of BDE-209 were twice as likely to have thyroid cancer. Those with high levels of TCEP dust were four times more likely to have large aggressive tumors.

Water Contamination May Trigger Thyroid Disease

Nearly 100 percent of people living in the U.S. have perchlorate in their body, but according to scientists, Arizona is one of the six most perchlorate-polluted states.¹³ As perchlorate remains stable in water, it may easily invade drinking water supplies. The chemical is known to disrupt health by preventing iodide uptake at the thyroid gland. Your thyroid gland requires iodide in order to produce thyroid hormone.¹⁴ Thus if the perchlorate prevents iodide uptake, it reduces the amount of thyroid hormones in your body.

Perchlorate may also slow brain development in infants. C. Loren Buck, Ph.D., of Northern Arizona University,¹⁵ will lead a two-year study to evaluate the effects of the chemical on citizens in Yuma, Arizona. The process for the biomolecular substitution of perchlorate for iodide is called the Finkelstein Reaction.¹⁶ This reaction is not limited to perchlorate in the thyroid gland, but also occurs with other additives found in city water, namely fluoride.^17,18

A British study found a strong correlation between areas where fluoride content was highest with higher risk of developing underactive thyroid function. In fact, in areas where the levels of fluoride exceeded 0.3 milligrams per liter (mg/L) the risk of low thyroid function rose by 30 percent.¹⁹

In the U.S., the minimum standards for drinking water fluoridation are set at 0.7 mg/L by the U.S. Health and Human Services.²⁰ This means the risk of low thyroid function as a result of poor iodide uptake may be even higher in Americans than those found in the British study, based on higher levels of fluoridation.

Natural Strategies to Support Your Thyroid Function

A diagnosis of suboptimal thyroid function is best made with a combination of blood testing and screening for clinical symptoms. Symptoms of low thyroid function may include:

✓ Unexplained fatigue	✓ Depression	✓ Dry skin
✓ Anxiety	✓ Feeling cold	✓ Brain fog
✓ Unexplained weight gain	✓ Low libido	✓ Hair loss

There are several natural strategies you may consider to help support your thyroid function and improve your health. These include:

✓ Water filtration As I discuss in a previous article, "Why Filtering Your Water is a Necessity," fluoride is not the only chemical polluting your drinking water. While filtering the whole house is important to prevent chlorine from evaporating or aerosolizing into the air, fluoride removal is most important in your drinking water. Unfortunately, most tap water contains a vast array of disinfection byproducts, chemicals, radiation, heavy metals and even pharmaceutical drugs. Fluoride, which is still being added to many municipal water supplies, is yet another factor that can make the water you drink each day more harmful than healing.

✓ Ashwagandha An herb native to Asia and India, it has been a powerful tool in Ayurvedic medicine for thousands of years. It functions as an adaptogen, meaning it helps your body adapt to challenges by balancing your immune system, metabolism and hormonal systems.21 The root contains the highest concentration of the active ingredients in the plant and helps modulate hormone balances, including your thyroid hormone. It has also demonstrated positive effects on estrogen and progesterone balance as women move toward menopause. The root reduces cortisol levels, restores insulin sensitivity and helps to stabilize your mood, even if depression isn't part of your thyroid condition.22 Other research indicates it may protect your brain from oxidative stress and improve your energy level.23

✓ Natural desiccated thyroid Natural desiccated thyroid (NDT) is a prescription medication that may be referred to as natural thyroid, thyroid extract, or by the brand names Nature-Throid or Amour Thyroid.24 NDT contains T4, T3, calcium and other elements a natural thyroid gland would produce. In a randomized, double-blind, crossover study, researchers compared NDT against levothyroxine in 70 patients, ages 18 to 65 years, who suffered from primary hypothyroidism.25 The patients took either medication for 16 weeks. Afterward, patients were asked which they preferred and nearly 50 percent preferred the NDT versus 19 percent who preferred the levothyroxine. Those taking the NDT lost an average of 3 pounds while those taking the levothyroxine didn't lose any weight. Another study in the New England Journal of Medicine demonstrated a natural thyroid supplement was better at controlling mental functioning as it supplied both T3 and T4; T3 does 90 percent of the work of your thyroid hormones.26 If your doctor or endocrinologist will not consider switching you from levothyroxine to an NDT preparation, you may want to share this article and some of the available research with them, as a synthetic preparation is rarely the best choice to treat hypothyroidism.

✓ Iodine This is a requirement for normal thyroid hormone function. In this video Dr. Jorge Flechas discusses the rampant iodine deficiency that plagues industrialized nations and the doses that may be necessary to reverse this trend.

✓ Avoid sources of bromine Bromine appears to play a large role in the rising number of people suffering from iodine insufficiency. Bromines are found in pesticides, plastics, baked goods, soft drinks and fire retardants.

✓ Vitamins and amino acids Vitamins B1227 and A28 with amino acid tyrosine29 have demonstrated beneficial effects in people who suffer from suboptimal thyroid function.

✓ Guggul This is an extract of the sap from an Indian myrrh tree, which enhances the conversion of T4 to T3 in your body.30 Traditionally, the supplement was used to treat low metabolism, a symptom of suboptimal thyroid function. In an animal model, researchers found rats given guggul had increased uptake of iodine from their food and increased activity of thyroid enzymes with increased oxygen consumption.31 The supplement also demonstrated increased blood concentration of T3 hormone from T4 conversion,32 and increased the activity of the enzyme responsible for converting T4 to T3.33 It is likely unsafe during pregnancy and you should thoroughly evaluate the interactions with your physician before using it.34

✓ Korean ginseng This is an adaptogen like ashwagandha and contains properties that block production of excessive amounts of reverse T3 (rT3). Asian practitioners developed a fermented ginseng preparation that was absorbed better, faster and stayed in your body longer.35 A human study looked at the impact of this preparation on thyroid hormone levels and found that treatment by injection resulted in better clinical outcomes, healthy increase of T3 and T4 levels and a reduction in rT3.36

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